The History Of Psychology and Philosophy

The History Of Psychology and Philosophy Throughout the course of history, psychology has taken shape and formed into a field of science that is essential in modern times. Psychologys origins are deeply rooted in the field of philosophy, dating back to the ancient Greeks with such recognizable names as Aristotle and Plato, who began contemplating the causes of human behavior before even physiology and anatomy would connect the brain to behavior. Many philosophers have attempted to explain the basis for our behavior, but few have been influential and ingenious enough to have not only changed the face of psychology, but lead it into a new direction and devise theories still considered germane today. With the growing popularity of psychology in the field of philosophy, it was only a matter of time before psychology captured the interest of academics with a more scientific approach to determining and explaining the causes for human behavior. Following on the footsteps of Wilhelm Wundt and William James, the founding fathers of modern psychology, many scientists clamored to disprove current theories. As centuries have passed, and our knowledge and technology continues to advance, few philosophers and scientists have been so close to the mark with their theories to have influenced the field so greatly and still remain a vital part of our research, experiments, and theories today. John Locke, a 17th century English philosopher, and Charles Darwin, a 19th century naturalist and scientist are two men who fall into that category. John Lockes theories on how we gain knowledge were a turning point in child psychology in a time where children were meant to be seen and not heard. His beliefs still have validity today where the argument of nature vs. nurture comes into play. Charles Darwin catapulted functionalism to the head of the line in the field of psychology and opened up psychology to every field of research and data collection where human behavior is concerned. Darwins theory of evolution is still a major focus in many fields of psychology and was one of the most important developm ents, to this date, in the field of psychology. PHILOSOPHY John Locke was one of many philosophers of his time who believed that knowledge was gained through experience, and is often identified as the first of the great English empiricists. This title is often bestowed upon him due to his book, An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, in which one of his most substantial goals was to determine the limits of human understanding. While Lockes most important lifes work was in the political arena, he put the same ideas to work in the field of psychology. Lockes disdain for authority lead him to extend his beliefs beyond politics; he wanted people to use reason to search for truth rather than simply accepting the opinion of authorities, or hinge their beliefs on superstition. This is how he approached his study of cognitive functioning. Locke did not agree with Descartes theory that knowledge can be innate, knowledge that we have gained without having experience and developed out of our consciousness. This is where his political ideas and his philosophical ideas crossed paths. It was Lockes belief that we are obligated to acquire knowledge and not just accept what we are told; knowledge is not innate, our mind gains simple information and builds complex ideas. Locke subscribed to the same basic idea that as Aristotle had, hundreds of years earlier, that the mind is a blank slate, or tabula rasa, when we are born. He applied this concept to children, which was quite radical for that time. Locke argued that children are not innately bad, they are born with this blank slate, and their experiences are substantial in deciding their characteristics as adults. He believed that children developed bad thinking habits and in order to dissuade this, children needed to be taught to base their beliefs on strong, fact based notio ns rather than simply believing what is meant to be understood as fact. This idea of a blank slate, is still argued by psychologists today. This is the same as the nature vs. nurture theory. Locke simply believed that everything is nurture, and who we become is based upon our environment and what we experience. He urged parents to spend time with their children, and guide them to help them develop into honorable members of society. While we now know, based upon years of research and study, that heredity and genetics are part of what decides our fate as we develop into adulthood, experience is highly implemental to our emotional and social development. Lockes argument was based upon two different types of experience, sensation and reflection. Sensation is based upon external experiences such as color, sound, and motion and reflection is based upon internal experiences, which cause the mind to reflect upon these sensations we have experienced and form thoughts and ideas, building our knowledge. This is where we collect our simple ideas, which then build and grow into complex ideas. Sensation helps us to form simple, very basic ideas. Reflection of those sensations causes us to add those stored simple ideas together to form a complex idea, thereby adding to our knowledge base. The notion of combining or compounding ideas and the reverse notion of analyzing them marks the beginning of the mental -chemistry approach to the problem of association. (Schultz Schultz, 2008 2007 Pg. 41) Association is, simply put, learning. SCIENCE Charles Darwin is probably one of the most renowned scientists who developed one of the most debated theories in history, the Theory of Evolution. Darwins ideas started formulating while he acted as the naturalist on a five-year voyage on the HMS Beagle. While aboard the Beagle, Darwin kept meticulous notes of his observations, and collected countless biologic and geologic specimens that were sent back to England. From these notes and specimens, Darwin penned three books on South American geology, published numerous scientific papers on zoology, and began his notebook on the transmutation of species. After his return, Darwin began communicating with breeders, zookeepers, naturalists, and gardeners to collect facts and gather evidence to support his theory of evolution. Two years later, Darwin became entranced by a two-year-old orangutan named Jenny, on display at the London Zoo. He was so taken by Jenny that he returned several times to observe and interact with her, until she died from an illness after only two years in captivity. Darwins reaction was that of profound astonishment evident in his notebook: Let man visit Orangoutang in domestication, see its intelligenceà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦and then let him boast of his proud pre-eminenceà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Man in his arrogance thinks himself a great work, worthy the interposition of a diety. More humble, and I believe true, to consider him created from animals (as cited in Schultz, Schultz 2008 2007, Pg. 125). Darwin was not the first scientist to broach the subject of evolution. Ancient Greek philosophers argued the evolution of all life forms from air and water. A century before Darwin was born, German philosopher Immanuel Kant had a theory that closely resembled Darwins. He surmised that all life forms came from one single ancestor, and lower life forms may have adapted and evolved as needed for survival. Erasmus Darwin, Charless grandfather, also wrote of the relationship of all forms of life. While evolution was not necessarily a new or original concept, but the evidence and data Darwin collected, accompanied by his Origin of Species, was enough to start the chain of events that changed the direction of psychology. From Darwins theory of evolution came a deepening interest in studying the similarities of mental processes between humans and animals, prompting the field of comparative psychology, the study of animal behavior. Comparative psychology elicited the works of behaviorists Ivan Pavlov and B.F. Skinner, both of whom were highly influential in launching the behaviorist movement. Darwins theory of natural selection lead psychologists to delve deeper into researching individual differences amongst people in an attempt to find out why some thrived while others barely rise above average. Alfred Binets intelligence tests were developed while the focus on individual differences was burgeoning, as intelligence is a major focus for studying differences between individuals. Evolutionary psychology was obviously, spawned by Darwins theory. Evolutionary psychology is a field of cognitive psychology that is dedicated to explaining the causes of human behavior based upon adaptation and natural selecti on. Darwins theory of evolution took the spotlight off structuralism, and shined it directly at functionalism. The structuralism theories and works of Wundt and Titchener were not answering the questions that the psychologists of the time wanted answered. This switch to functionalism, catapulted by Darwin, sparked a desire to apply psychology to everyday life and the issues people face and of how adapt and function in different environments. CONCLUSION Rene Descartes, a 17th century French philosopher and mathematician brought about a spreading desire to explain the mind-body problem. This was the beginning of modern psychology. What followed was a stream of philosophers formulating theories and scientists who helped to make psychology and specific field of science. Many of the theories of the founding fathers of psychology, whether philosopher, scientist, physiologist, purveyor of structuralism or functionalism, are outdated and have been proven to be highly inaccurate, or completely without validity. Few theories have been able to stand the test of time, regardless of their influence and contributions to the field. John Lockes theories were the basis for a completely different view of child psychology and still hold validity today. While Locke was not completely correct with his idea of tabula rasa, starting life with a blank slate, the notion that our experiences shape who we become and are highly influential to our development is still a valid argument. Nature vs. nurture is one of the most valid theories in psychology today, and Lockes theory is derived from the nurture side. Charles Darwin did not start the concept of evolution, the theory had been circulating for centuries before he even cracked open his first notebook. However, his theories of evolution and natural selection set the tone for studies and research that continues to thrive. His theory of natural selection is valid in that we are constantly adapting and changing as our environment and circumstances change. Darwins theory came from every area of study from geology to zoology, and biology to animal husbandry. Those avenues of information and the combining of knowledge from different fields and areas of science are still open to us and have been extremely beneficial in continuing to broaden our efforts to explain the behavior of our fellow human beings. Darwins theory highlighted the importance of studying individuals, and continues with behavior analysts and experimental psychologists worldwide. With the thoroughness and painstakingly detailed documentation and supporting evidence Darwin col lected it would be difficult to pinpoint much that is not valid today from a psychological standpoint. The only true debates where Darwins theories are concerned seem to stem from religion circles and creationists, which has little bearing on the attempt to explain human behavior. Reference Page Schultz, Duane P. Schultz, Sydney E., (2008, 2007), History of Psychology PS210, Cengage Learning: Mason, OH. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/locke/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/darwinism/

False Memory Essay -- distorted memory, fabricated recollections

Memory is one of the most critical parts of cognition. It is important because it is involved in almost every aspect of cognition including problem solving, decision making, attention, and perception. Because of this importance, people rely on one’s memory to make important decisions. The value of one’s memory in this society is so high that it is used as evidence to either save one’s life or kill one’s life during murder trials. But as many of the cognitive psychologists know, human’s memory can cause many errors. One of these errors is false memory which is either remembering events that never happened or remembering events differently from the actual event. This finding of false memory raised big interests among psychologists and general public and many researches were done in order to find more about the false memory. The constructive approach to memory, which states that memory is constructed by person based on what really happened in addition to person’s other knowledge, experiences, and expectations, supports the idea of false memory. Just like what constructive approach to memory states, the false memory can be created by person’s knowledge, common biases, and suggestions. The present study was done in order to demonstrate one methodology that biases people to create and recall false memories. The present study is based on Deese’s experiment in 1959 and also on Roediger and McDermott’s experiment in 1995. The participants will be presented with sequence of words visually, and then they would have to classify a set of words as either in the sequence or not in the sequence. Our hypothesis is that people will create false memories and recall distractor words that are related to the sequence of words presented significantly m... ...re I think if the participants are not aware of it, the false recall rate will increase. And if there are more words presented, my assume is that it will increase the false recall rate. We can imply this finding of false memory in many ways in our lives. We all should note that our memory cannot be trusted 100% and we should not solely rely on our memory when it comes to making critical decisions. Just like the murder trial example used in earlier, when it comes to eye witnessing, the judge should take possible false memory into account when making the final decisions and try to obtain objective evidence along with the memory of the witness. Works Cited Roediger, H. L. III, & McDermott, K. B. (1995). Creating false memories: Remembering words not presented in lists. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 21, 803-814

Cultural Dimensions Essay

1)Give the definition and objectives of â€Å"your† cultural dimensions (what does the dimension measure? what do you want to measure? For instance : ability to work in groups, individual empowerment †¦ (for the individual/collective dimension). Diffuse and Specific orientated cultures – The most apparent difference is the ability to separate private from professional life. In diffused cultures, the private and professional lives are closely linked whereas specific cultures keep them separate. Additionally, specific cultures promote directness, precision, and transparency. Also, people from specific orientated cultures are able to remove themselves from a situation in regards to principles and values. This means that specific orientated cultures encourage objectivity. This is in contrast with the diffuse orientated culture that is more indirect and highly subjective. Furthermore, it can be said that this culture is more informal and social-orientated. 2)Illustrate the dimension referring not only to the professional life. Describe situations in which the dimension may impact behaviors. For instance : when somebody cries in the classroom,†¦ (for the neutral/ affective dimension). For example, if a manager is invited to dinner by employees, in a specific-orientated culture, the manager might decline the invitation as he or she wouldn’t feel it is appropriate whereas in a diffuse orientated culture this might be seen as an opportunity to bring informality to the relationship. So in a company based in Germany, this invitation would be seen as inappropriate because Germany has a more specific culture whereas in Finland this wouldn’t necessarily be frowned upon as it is more diffuse orientated. 3)In order to measure â€Å"your† dimension among persons of different nationality, prepare a series or questions (MCQ or Yes/No type are easier to analyze).

How Not to Write a Letter of Complaint

Read the following claim letter as if you were in a position to take care of the writers complaint. Then respond thoughtfully to the questions that follow the letter. Letter of Complaint: Mr. E. Manns Problem With the DooDad Plus Mr. E. Mann345 Brooklawn DriveSavannah, Georgia 31419July 7, 2016PresidentHouse of Thingamajigs160 Prospect StreetSavannah, Georgia 31410SUBJECT: Faulty Products and Inferior ServiceDear Mr. or Ms. President:1 I am writing this letter because I couldn’t get anywhere by talking to the manager of your store. Apparently, she never heard of the old saying, â€Å"The customer is always right.†2 It all started in May when I returned the DooDad Plus to your â€Å"customer service† department because it was missing a part. (I don’t suppose that you have ever tried to assemble a DooDad Plus, but it just can’t be done without all the parts.) This guy in customer service was not exactly the sharpest knife in the drawer, but he spent about half an hour tapping on his computer and eventually told me that the missing part should arrive from the warehouse in three to five days. Three to five days—sure.3 Here it is July, and the thing still hasn’t sho wn up. The summer is half over, and I still haven’t had a chance to use my DooDad Plus. I’ve been down to your â€Å"customer service† department about a million times over the past two months, and every time somebody taps on the computer and smiles and says the missing part is â€Å"en route from the warehouse.† Where in tarnation is this warehouse—Kandahar?4 So today I went down to your so-called store and dragged the so-called manager out of her coffee break to explain that I was giving up. All I wanted was my money back. (Besides, it turns out that I can get a DooDad Plus from Lowe’s for ten bucks less than what I paid you. Ha!) So what does this lady tell me? That it’s â€Å"against store policy† to refund my money because I had already opened the package and started assembling the DooDad!5 This is insane! I have already reported you to the Better Business Bureau. Now, what are you going to do about it?Sincerely,Mr. E. Man n Questions Keeping in mind the advice offered in the article How to Write  a Letter of Complaint, explain whats wrong with the overall tone of Mr. E. Manns letter. How might the writers tone undermine his apparent purpose in writing the letter?What information in this letter should probably be omitted because its not directly relevant to the writers complaint?Some of the information thats typically provided in the opening paragraph of an effective complaint is missing from Mr. E. Manns introduction. What useful information is missing?Offer a critique of the body paragraphs in Mr. E. Manns letter. What useful information is missing? What unnecessary information obscures his claim?Some of the information thats typically provided in the closing paragraph of an effective complaint is missing from Mr. E. Manns conclusion. What useful information is missing?Based on your responses to the questions above, revise Mr. E. Manns letter, altering the tone, clarifying the claim, and omitting unnecessary d etails.